ವಿಶ್ವ ಸಮರ I (WWI ಅಥವಾ WW1)
, ಮೊದಲ ವಿಶ್ವಯುದ್ಧ ಅಥವಾ ಐತಿಹಾಸಿಕ ಸಂದರ್ಭಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧ ಎಂದೂ ಸಹ ಕರೆಯಲ್ಪಡುತ್ತದೆ, ಇದು ಎರಡು ಒಕ್ಕೂಟಗಳು, ಮಿತ್ರಪಕ್ಷಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಕೇಂದ್ರೀಯ ಶಕ್ತಿಗಳ ನಡುವಿನ ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಜಾಗತಿಕ ಸಂಘರ್ಷವಾಗಿದೆ. ಯುರೋಪ್, ಮಧ್ಯಪ್ರಾಚ್ಯ, ಆಫ್ರಿಕಾ, ಪೆಸಿಫಿಕ್ ಮತ್ತು ಏಷ್ಯಾದ ಕೆಲವು ಭಾಗಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಹೋರಾಟಗಳು ನಡೆದವು. ಇತಿಹಾಸದಲ್ಲಿ ಮಾರಣಾಂತಿಕ ಯುದ್ಧಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಒಂದಾದ ಇದು ಅಂದಾಜು 9 ಮಿಲಿಯನ್ ಸೈನಿಕರು ಸತ್ತರು ಮತ್ತು 23 ಮಿಲಿಯನ್ ಗಾಯಗೊಂಡರು, ಜೊತೆಗೆ ವಿವಿಧ ಕಾರಣಗಳಿಂದ 5 ಮಿಲಿಯನ್ ನಾಗರಿಕರು ಸಾವನ್ನಪ್ಪಿದರು. ನರಮೇಧದ ಪರಿಣಾಮವಾಗಿ ಲಕ್ಷಾಂತರ ಜನರು ಸತ್ತರು ಮತ್ತು 1918 ರ ಸ್ಪ್ಯಾನಿಷ್ ಜ್ವರ ಸಾಂಕ್ರಾಮಿಕದಲ್ಲಿ ಯುದ್ಧವು ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಅಂಶವಾಗಿತ್ತು.
20 ನೇ ಶತಮಾನದ ಮೊದಲ ದಶಕದಲ್ಲಿ ಯುರೋಪಿಯನ್ ಮಹಾನ್ ಶಕ್ತಿಗಳ ನಡುವೆ ಹೆಚ್ಚುತ್ತಿರುವ ರಾಜತಾಂತ್ರಿಕ ಉದ್ವಿಗ್ನತೆಯನ್ನು ಕಂಡಿತು. ಇದು 28 ಜೂನ್ 1914 ರಂದು ಬ್ರೇಕಿಂಗ್ ಪಾಯಿಂಟ್ ಅನ್ನು ತಲುಪಿತು, ಗವ್ರಿಲೋ ಪ್ರಿನ್ಸಿಪ್ ಎಂಬ ಬೋಸ್ನಿಯನ್ ಸರ್ಬ್ ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೋ-ಹಂಗೇರಿಯನ್ ಸಿಂಹಾಸನದ ಉತ್ತರಾಧಿಕಾರಿ ಆರ್ಚ್‌ಡ್ಯೂಕ್ ಫ್ರಾಂಜ್ ಫರ್ಡಿನಾಂಡ್‌ನನ್ನು ಹತ್ಯೆ ಮಾಡಿದನು. ಆಸ್ಟ್ರಿಯಾ-ಹಂಗೇರಿಯು ಸೆರ್ಬಿಯಾವನ್ನು ಹೊಣೆಗಾರರನ್ನಾಗಿ ಮಾಡಿತು ಮತ್ತು ಜುಲೈ 28 ರಂದು ಯುದ್ಧವನ್ನು ಘೋಷಿಸಿತು. ರಷ್ಯಾ ಸೆರ್ಬಿಯಾದ ರಕ್ಷಣೆಗೆ ಬಂದಿತು ಮತ್ತು ಆಗಸ್ಟ್ 4 ರ ಹೊತ್ತಿಗೆ ಜರ್ಮನಿ, ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್ ಮತ್ತು ಬ್ರಿಟನ್ ಯುದ್ಧಕ್ಕೆ ಸೆಳೆಯಲ್ಪಟ್ಟವು, ಅದೇ ವರ್ಷದ ನವೆಂಬರ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ ಒಟ್ಟೋಮನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯವು ಸೇರಿತು.
1914 ರಲ್ಲಿ ಜರ್ಮನಿಯ ತಂತ್ರವು ಮೊದಲು ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್ ಅನ್ನು ಸೋಲಿಸುವುದು, ನಂತರ ರಷ್ಯಾದ ಮುಂಭಾಗಕ್ಕೆ ಪಡೆಗಳನ್ನು ವರ್ಗಾಯಿಸುವುದು. ಆದಾಗ್ಯೂ, ಇದು ವಿಫಲವಾಯಿತು, ಮತ್ತು 1914 ರ ಅಂತ್ಯದ ವೇಳೆಗೆ, ವೆಸ್ಟರ್ನ್ ಫ್ರಂಟ್ ಇಂಗ್ಲಿಷ್ ಚಾನೆಲ್‌ನಿಂದ ಸ್ವಿಟ್ಜರ್ಲೆಂಡ್‌ನವರೆಗೆ ಚಾಚಿರುವ ಕಂದಕಗಳ ನಿರಂತರ ರೇಖೆಯನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡಿತ್ತು. ಈಸ್ಟರ್ನ್ ಫ್ರಂಟ್ ಹೆಚ್ಚು ಕ್ರಿಯಾತ್ಮಕವಾಗಿತ್ತು, ಆದರೆ ದುಬಾರಿ ಆಕ್ರಮಣಗಳ ಹೊರತಾಗಿಯೂ ಎರಡೂ ಕಡೆಯವರು ನಿರ್ಣಾಯಕ ಪ್ರಯೋಜನವನ್ನು ಗಳಿಸಲು ಸಾಧ್ಯವಾಗಲಿಲ್ಲ. ಯುದ್ಧವು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿನ ರಂಗಗಳಿಗೆ ವಿಸ್ತರಿಸಿದಂತೆ, ಬಲ್ಗೇರಿಯಾ, ರೊಮೇನಿಯಾ, ಗ್ರೀಸ್, ಇಟಲಿ ಮತ್ತು ಇತರರು 1915 ರಿಂದ ಸೇರಿಕೊಂಡರು.
1917 ರ ಆರಂಭದಲ್ಲಿ, ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಸ್ಟೇಟ್ಸ್ ಮಿತ್ರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಗಳ ಕಡೆಯಿಂದ ಯುದ್ಧವನ್ನು ಪ್ರವೇಶಿಸಿತು, ಮತ್ತು ಅದೇ ವರ್ಷದ ನಂತರ, ಬೋಲ್ಶೆವಿಕ್ಗಳು ರಷ್ಯಾದ ಅಕ್ಟೋಬರ್ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಅಧಿಕಾರವನ್ನು ವಶಪಡಿಸಿಕೊಂಡರು, 1918 ರ ಆರಂಭದಲ್ಲಿ ಕೇಂದ್ರೀಯ ಶಕ್ತಿಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಶಾಂತಿ ಸ್ಥಾಪಿಸಿದರು. ಜರ್ಮನಿಯು ಪಶ್ಚಿಮದಲ್ಲಿ ಆಕ್ರಮಣವನ್ನು ಪ್ರಾರಂಭಿಸಿತು. ಮಾರ್ಚ್ 1918 ರಲ್ಲಿ, ಮತ್ತು ಆರಂಭಿಕ ಯಶಸ್ಸಿನ ಹೊರತಾಗಿಯೂ, ಇದು ಜರ್ಮನ್ ಸೈನ್ಯವನ್ನು ದಣಿದ ಮತ್ತು ನಿರಾಶೆಗೊಳಿಸಿತು. ಆ ವರ್ಷದ ನಂತರ ಯಶಸ್ವಿ ಮಿತ್ರಪಕ್ಷದ ಪ್ರತಿದಾಳಿಯು ಜರ್ಮನ್ ಮುಂಚೂಣಿಯ ಕುಸಿತಕ್ಕೆ ಕಾರಣವಾಯಿತು. 1918 ರ ಅಂತ್ಯದ ವೇಳೆಗೆ, ಬಲ್ಗೇರಿಯಾ, ಒಟ್ಟೋಮನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ ಮತ್ತು ಆಸ್ಟ್ರಿಯಾ-ಹಂಗೇರಿ ಮಿತ್ರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಗಳೊಂದಿಗೆ ಕದನವಿರಾಮಕ್ಕೆ ಒಪ್ಪಿಕೊಂಡವು, ಜರ್ಮನಿಯನ್ನು ಪ್ರತ್ಯೇಕಿಸಿತು. ಮನೆಯಲ್ಲಿ ಮತ್ತು ದಂಗೆಯ ಅಂಚಿನಲ್ಲಿ ತನ್ನ ಸೈನ್ಯದೊಂದಿಗೆ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿಯನ್ನು ಎದುರಿಸುತ್ತಿರುವ ಕೈಸರ್ ವಿಲ್ಹೆಲ್ಮ್ II ನವೆಂಬರ್ 9 ರಂದು ಪದತ್ಯಾಗ ಮಾಡಿದರು.
ಕಾನ್ಫರೆನ್ಸ್ ಸೋಲಿಸಲ್ಪಟ್ಟ ಅಧಿಕಾರಗಳ ಮೇಲೆ ವಿವಿಧ ವಸಾಹತುಗಳನ್ನು ವಿಧಿಸಿತು, ವಿಶೇಷವಾಗಿ ವರ್ಸೈಲ್ಸ್ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ. ರಷ್ಯನ್, ಜರ್ಮನ್, ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೋ-ಹಂಗೇರಿಯನ್ ಮತ್ತು ಒಟ್ಟೋಮನ್ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ವಿಸರ್ಜನೆಯು ಪೋಲೆಂಡ್, ಫಿನ್ಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್, ಜೆಕೊಸ್ಲೊವಾಕಿಯಾ ಮತ್ತು ಯುಗೊಸ್ಲಾವಿಯಾ ಸೇರಿದಂತೆ ಹೊಸ ಸ್ವತಂತ್ರ ರಾಜ್ಯಗಳ ರಚನೆಗೆ ಕಾರಣವಾಯಿತು. ಯುದ್ಧಾನಂತರದ ಅಸ್ಥಿರತೆಯನ್ನು ನಿರ್ವಹಿಸಲು ಅಸಮರ್ಥತೆಯು ಸೆಪ್ಟೆಂಬರ್ 1939 ರಲ್ಲಿ ವಿಶ್ವ ಸಮರ II ರ ಏಕಾಏಕಿ ಕೊಡುಗೆ ನೀಡಿತು.
ಹೆಸರುಗಳು
ವಿಶ್ವ ಸಮರ ಎಂಬ ಪದವನ್ನು ಮೊದಲು ಸೆಪ್ಟೆಂಬರ್ 1914 ರಲ್ಲಿ ಜರ್ಮನ್ ಜೀವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಜ್ಞ ಮತ್ತು ತತ್ವಜ್ಞಾನಿ ಅರ್ನ್ಸ್ಟ್ ಹೆಕೆಲ್ ಅವರು ಸೃಷ್ಟಿಸಿದರು. ಅವರು 20 ಸೆಪ್ಟೆಂಬರ್ 1914 ರಂದು ದಿ ಇಂಡಿಯಾನಾಪೊಲಿಸ್ ಸ್ಟಾರ್‌ನಲ್ಲಿ "ಭಯಭೀತವಾದ 'ಯುರೋಪಿಯನ್ ಯುದ್ಧ'ದ ಕೋರ್ಸ್ ಮತ್ತು ಪಾತ್ರವು ... ಪದದ ಸಂಪೂರ್ಣ ಅರ್ಥದಲ್ಲಿ ಮೊದಲ ವಿಶ್ವಯುದ್ಧವಾಗುತ್ತದೆ ಎಂಬುದರಲ್ಲಿ ಸಂದೇಹವಿಲ್ಲ" ಎಂದು ಹೇಳಿಕೊಂಡರು.
ಮೊದಲನೆಯ ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧ ಎಂಬ ಪದವನ್ನು ಲೆಫ್ಟಿನೆಂಟ್ ಕರ್ನಲ್ ಬಳಸಿದ್ದರು. ಚಾರ್ಲ್ಸ್ ಎ ಕೋರ್ಟ್ ರೆಪಿಂಗ್ಟನ್, ಅವರ ಆತ್ಮಚರಿತ್ರೆಗಳಿಗೆ ಶೀರ್ಷಿಕೆಯಾಗಿ (1920 ರಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರಕಟವಾಯಿತು); ಅವರು 10 ಸೆಪ್ಟೆಂಬರ್ 1918 ರ ತಮ್ಮ ಡೈರಿ ನಮೂದಿನಲ್ಲಿ ಹಾರ್ವರ್ಡ್ ವಿಶ್ವವಿದ್ಯಾಲಯದ ಮೇಜರ್ ಜಾನ್‌ಸ್ಟೋನ್‌ರೊಂದಿಗೆ ಈ ವಿಷಯದ ಕುರಿತು ತಮ್ಮ ಚರ್ಚೆಯನ್ನು ಗಮನಿಸಿದ್ದರು.[2][3]
ವಿಶ್ವ ಸಮರ II ರ ಮೊದಲು, 1914-1918 ರ ಘಟನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಸಾಮಾನ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧ ಅಥವಾ ಸರಳವಾಗಿ ವಿಶ್ವಯುದ್ಧ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲಾಗುತ್ತಿತ್ತು.[4] ಆಗಸ್ಟ್ 1914 ರಲ್ಲಿ, ದಿ ಇಂಡಿಪೆಂಡೆಂಟ್ ನಿಯತಕಾಲಿಕವು "ಇದು ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧವಾಗಿದೆ. ಇದು ಸ್ವತಃ ಹೆಸರಿಸುತ್ತದೆ" ಎಂದು ಬರೆದಿದೆ.[5] ಅಕ್ಟೋಬರ್ 1914 ರಲ್ಲಿ, ಕೆನಡಾದ ಮ್ಯಾಗಜೀನ್ ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಲೀನ್ಸ್ ಇದೇ ರೀತಿ ಬರೆದರು, "ಕೆಲವು ಯುದ್ಧಗಳು ತಮ್ಮನ್ನು ತಾವು ಹೆಸರಿಸುತ್ತವೆ. ಇದು ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧವಾಗಿದೆ." [6] ಸಮಕಾಲೀನ ಯುರೋಪಿಯನ್ನರು ಇದನ್ನು "ಯುದ್ಧವನ್ನು ಕೊನೆಗೊಳಿಸುವ ಯುದ್ಧ" ಎಂದು ಉಲ್ಲೇಖಿಸಿದ್ದಾರೆ ಮತ್ತು ಇದನ್ನು "ಯುದ್ಧ" ಎಂದೂ ವಿವರಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ. ಎಲ್ಲಾ ಯುದ್ಧಗಳನ್ನು ಕೊನೆಗೊಳಿಸಲು" ಅದರ ಸಾಟಿಯಿಲ್ಲದ ಪ್ರಮಾಣ, ವಿನಾಶ ಮತ್ತು ಜೀವಹಾನಿಯ ಗ್ರಹಿಕೆಯಿಂದಾಗಿ.[7]
ಹಿನ್ನೆಲೆ
ಮುಖ್ಯ ಲೇಖನ: ವಿಶ್ವ ಸಮರ I ರ ಕಾರಣಗಳು
ಮೊದಲನೆಯ ಮಹಾಯುದ್ಧಕ್ಕೆ ಕಾರಣವಾದ ಘಟನೆಗಳು
ಸರಜೆವೊ
ಜರ್ಮನಿಯ ಏಕೀಕರಣ 1866–1871
ಫ್ರಾಂಕೋ-ಪ್ರಶ್ಯನ್ ಯುದ್ಧ 1870-1871
ಯೂರೋಪ್‌ನ ಎರಡನೇ ಗೋಷ್ಠಿ 1871
ಗ್ರೇಟ್ ಈಸ್ಟರ್ನ್ ಕ್ರೈಸಿಸ್ 1875-1878
ಬೋಸ್ನಿಯಾದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರಚಾರ 1878
ಉಭಯ ಮೈತ್ರಿ 1879
ಬೋಯರ್ ವಾರ್ಸ್ 1880–1902
ಆಸ್ಟ್ರೋ-ಸರ್ಬಿಯನ್ ಅಲೈಯನ್ಸ್ 1881-1903
ಟ್ರಿಪಲ್ ಅಲೈಯನ್ಸ್ 1882
ಬರ್ಲಿನ್ ಸಮ್ಮೇಳನ 1884
ಬಲ್ಗೇರಿಯನ್ ಬಿಕ್ಕಟ್ಟು 1885–1888
ಮರುವಿಮೆ ಒಪ್ಪಂದ 1887–1890
ಫ್ರಾಂಕೋ-ರಷ್ಯನ್ ಅಲೈಯನ್ಸ್ 1894
ಮೊದಲ ಸಿನೋ-ಜಪಾನೀಸ್ ಯುದ್ಧ 1894-1895
ಫಶೋದಾ ಘಟನೆ 1898
ಆಂಗ್ಲೋ-ಜರ್ಮನ್ ನೌಕಾ ಶಸ್ತ್ರಾಸ್ತ್ರ ರೇಸ್ 1898-1912
ಆಂಗ್ಲೋ-ಜಪಾನೀಸ್ ಅಲಯನ್ಸ್ 1902
ರುಸ್ಸೋ-ಜಪಾನೀಸ್ ಯುದ್ಧ 1904-1905
ಎಂಟೆಂಟೆ ಕಾರ್ಡಿಯಾಲ್ 1904
ಮೊದಲ ಮೊರೊಕನ್ ಬಿಕ್ಕಟ್ಟು 1905-1906
ಹಂದಿ ಯುದ್ಧ 1906–1908
ಆಂಗ್ಲೋ-ರಷ್ಯನ್ ಕನ್ವೆನ್ಷನ್ 1907
ಯಂಗ್ ಟರ್ಕ್ ಕ್ರಾಂತಿ 1908
ಬೋಸ್ನಿಯನ್ ಬಿಕ್ಕಟ್ಟು 1908–1909
ರಾಕೊನಿಗಿ ಬಾರ್ಗೇನ್ 1909
ಎರಡನೇ ಮೊರೊಕನ್ ಬಿಕ್ಕಟ್ಟು 1911
ಇಟಾಲೋ-ಟರ್ಕಿಶ್ ಯುದ್ಧ 1911-1912
ಬಾಲ್ಕನ್ ಯುದ್ಧಗಳು 1912-1913
ಫ್ರಾಂಜ್ ಫರ್ಡಿನಾಂಡ್ ಹತ್ಯೆ 1914
ಜುಲೈ ಬಿಕ್ಕಟ್ಟು 1914
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ರಾಜಕೀಯ ಮತ್ತು ಮಿಲಿಟರಿ ಮೈತ್ರಿಗಳು
19 ನೇ ಶತಮಾನದ ಬಹುಪಾಲು, ಪ್ರಮುಖ ಯುರೋಪಿಯನ್ ಶಕ್ತಿಗಳು ತಮ್ಮ ತಮ್ಮ ನಡುವೆ ಶಕ್ತಿಯ ಸಮತೋಲನವನ್ನು ಕಾಯ್ದುಕೊಂಡವು, ಇದನ್ನು ಕನ್ಸರ್ಟ್ ಆಫ್ ಯುರೋಪ್ ಎಂದು ಕರೆಯಲಾಗುತ್ತದೆ.[8] 1848 ರ ನಂತರ, ಇದು ಬ್ರಿಟನ್‌ನ ಹಿಂತೆಗೆದುಕೊಳ್ಳುವಿಕೆಯನ್ನು ಸ್ಪ್ಲೆಂಡಿಡ್ ಐಸೋಲೇಶನ್, ಅವನತಿ ಸೇರಿದಂತೆ ವಿವಿಧ ಅಂಶಗಳಿಂದ ಸವಾಲು ಮಾಡಿತು.
,
, also known as the First World War or the Great War in historical contexts, was a major global conflict fought between two coalitions, the Allied Powers and the Central Powers. Fighting took place throughout Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia. One of the deadliest wars in history, it resulted in an estimated 9 million soldiers dead and 23 million wounded, plus another 5 million civilian deaths from various causes. Millions more died as a result of genocide, and the war was a major factor in the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic.
The first decade of the 20th century saw increasing diplomatic tension between the European great powers. This reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. Russia came to Serbia's defence, and by 4 August, Germany, France, and Britain were drawn into the war, with the Ottoman Empire joining in November of that same year.
Germany's strategy in 1914 was to first defeat France, then transfer forces to the Russian front. However, this failed, and by the end of 1914, the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side could gain a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. As the war expanded to more fronts, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, Italy and others joined in from 1915 onward.
In early 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, and later the same year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution, making peace with the Central Powers in early 1918. Germany launched an offensive in the west in March 1918, and despite initial success, it left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive later that year caused a collapse of the German frontline. By the end of 1918, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary agreed to armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing revolution at home and with his army on the verge of mutiny, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November.
Conference imposed various settlements on the defeated powers, notably the Treaty of Versailles. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires resulted in the creation of new independent states, including Poland, Finland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The inability to manage post-war instability contributed to the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.
Names
The term world war was first coined in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel. He claimed that "there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word,"[1] in The Indianapolis Star on 20 September 1914.
The term First World War had been used by Lt-Col. Charles à Court Repington, as a title for his memoirs (published in 1920); he had noted his discussion on the matter with a Major Johnstone of Harvard University in his diary entry of 10 September 1918.[2][3]
Prior to World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War.[4] In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself".[5] In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War."[6] Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as "the war to end war" and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life.[7]
Background
Main article: Causes of World War I
Events leading to World War I
Sarajevo
Unification of Germany 1866–1871
Franco-Prussian War 1870–1871
Second Concert of Europe 1871
Great Eastern Crisis 1875–1878
Campaign in Bosnia 1878
Dual Alliance 1879
Boer Wars 1880–1902
Austro–Serbian Alliance 1881–1903
Triple Alliance 1882
Berlin Conference 1884
Bulgarian Crisis 1885–1888
Reinsurance Treaty 1887–1890
Franco-Russian Alliance 1894
First Sino-Japanese War 1894–1895
Fashoda Incident 1898
Anglo-German naval arms race 1898–1912
Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902
Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
Entente Cordiale 1904
First Moroccan Crisis 1905–1906
Pig War 1906–1908
Anglo-Russian Convention 1907
Young Turk Revolution 1908
Bosnian Crisis 1908–1909
Racconigi Bargain 1909
Second Moroccan Crisis 1911
Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912
Balkan Wars 1912–1913
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 1914
July Crisis 1914
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Political and military alliances
For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power among themselves, known as the Concert of Europe.[8] After 1848, this was challenged by a variety of factors, including Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, New Imperialism, and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck. The 1866 Austro-Prussian War established Prussian hegemony in German states, while victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate the German states into a German Empire under Prussian leadership. Avenging the defeat of 1871, or revanchism, and recovering the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine became the principal objects of French policy for the next forty years.[9]
Map of Europe focusing on Austria-Hungary and marking the central location of ethnic groups in it including Slovaks, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ukrainians, Poles.
Rival military coalitions in 1914:[j]
Triple Entente
Triple Alliance
In order to isolate France and avoid a war on two fronts, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. After Russian victory in the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over Russian influence in the Balkans, an area they considered of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed the 1879 Dual Alliance, which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882.[10] For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolved any disputes between themselves; when this was threatened in 1880 by British and French attempts to negotiate directly with Russia, he reformed the League in 1881, which was renewed in 1883 and 1885. After the agreement lapsed in 1887, he replaced it with the Reinsurance Treaty, a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary.[11]
Bismarck viewed peace with Russia as the foundation of German foreign policy but after becoming Kaiser in 1890, Wilhelm II forced him to retire and was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor, Leo von Caprivi.[12] This provided France an opportunity to counteract the Triple Alliance by signing the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention. While these were not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Africa and Asia, the notion of British entry into any future conflict involving France or Russia became a possibility.[13] British and Russian support for France against Germany during the Agadir Crisis in 1911 reinforced their relationship and increased Anglo-German estrangement, deepening the divisions that would erupt in 1914.[14]
Arms race
German industrial strength and production significantly increased after 1871, driven by the creation of a unified Reich, French indemnity payments, and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth in economic power to build a Kaiserliche Marine, or Imperial German Navy, which could compete with the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy.[15] His thinking was influenced by US naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan, who argued possession of a blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel.[16]
However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to outdo and surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, so long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to a change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began.[17] Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage over their German rivals which they never lost.[15] Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to the Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army.[18]
SMS Rheinland, a Nassau-class battleship, Germany's first response to the British Dreadnought
This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions, but German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution that same year. Economic reforms backed by funding from the French led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions.[19] Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia, the threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are hard to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure, since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which also had logistical importance and military use. It is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms.[20]
Conflicts in the Balkans
Photo of large white building with one signs saying "Moritz Schiller" and another in Arabic; in front is a cluster of people looking at poster on the wall.
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the Austrian annexation in 1908
The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans as other powers sought to benefit from Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by a weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria. Since Russia had its own ambitions in northeastern Anatolia and their clients had over-lapping claims in the Balkans, balancing these divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability.[21]
Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire, and saw Serbian expansion as a direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878.
Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as a significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria co-operating with Russia in the Balkans while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy, both of whom had their own expansionist ambitions in the region.[22]
Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League, an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece.[23] The League quickly overran most of the Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War, much to the surprise of outside observers.[24] The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia. In a meeting the next day, the Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unwilling to precipitate a war for which they were not as of yet prepared to handle.[25]
The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through the 1913 Treaty of London, which created an independent Albania, while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War, when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania.[26] The result was that even countries which benefited from the Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany.[27] This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the "powder keg of Europe".[28]